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A
ANARCHY the absence of an international authority
see also: global governance,
international society, neoliberal institutionalism, security dilemma
ARMS CONTROL AGREEMENTS among states to restrict
the research, manufacture, or deployment of weapons systems and certain types of troops
B
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
the flow of money into and out of a country from trade, tourism, foreign aid, sale of services, profits, etc., for a period
of time
see also: structural adjustment programme
BALANCE OF POWER an international system in which states enjoy
relatively equal power, states form alliances or make policies to counteract the acquisition of power by other states, and
no one state is able to dominate the international system
BEHAVIORALISM an approach to the study of social science
and international relations that posits that individuals and units like states act in regularized ways; leads to a belief
that behaviors can be described, explained, and predicted
BELIEF SYSTEM the organized and integrated perceptions of
individuals in a society, including foreign-policy decision-makers, often based on past history, that guide them to select
certain policies over others
see also: cognitive consistency
BIPOLAR an international system with two major powers
or two groups of states having relatively equal power
see also: multipolar, unipolar, balance of power
BUREAUCRATIC
POLITICS the model of foreign-policy decision-making that posits that national decisions are the outcomes of bargaining among
bureaucratic groups having competing interests; decisions reflect the relative strength of the individual bureaucratic players
see also: organizational politics, societal model
C
CAPITALISM the economic system where the ownership of
the means of production is in private hands; the system operates according to market forces where capital and labor move freely.
According to radicals, an exploitative relationship between the owners of production and the workers
see also: comparative
advantage, imperialism
CIVIL WAR armed conflict within a state between factions that wish to control a government
or exercise jurisdiction over territory; may have international repercussions with the flow of armaments and refugees, often
leading to intervention by other states
see also: general war, track-two diplomacy
COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY the tendency
of individuals to accept information that is compatible with what has previously been accepted, often by ignoring inconsistent
information; linked to the desire of individuals to be consistent in their attitudes
see also: belief system, groupthink
COLD WAR the era in international relations between the end of World War II and 1990, distinguished by ideological,
economic, and political differences between the Soviet Union and the United States
see also: containment, first-generation
peacekeeping, superpower
COLLECTIVE GOODS public goods that are jointly provided forthe air, the oceans, or Antarcticabut
that no one owns or is individually responsible for; with collective goods, decisions by one group or state have effects for
other groups or states
COLLECTIVE SECURITY concept that aggression against a state should be defeated collectively
because aggression against one state is aggression against all; basis of the League of Nations and the United Nations
COMPARATIVE
ADVANTAGE the ability of a country to make and export a good relatively most efficiently; the basis for the liberal economic
principle that countries benefit from free trade among nations
see also: capitalism
COMPELLENCE the policy of
threatening or intimidating an adversary to take or refrain from taking a particular action
CONSTRUCTIVISM an alternative
international relations theory that hypothesizes how ideas, norms, and institutions shape state identity and interests
CONTAINMENT
a foreign policy designed to prevent the expansion of an adversary by blocking its opportunities to expand, by supporting
weaker states through foreign aid programmes, and by using coercive force against the adversary to harness its expansion;
the major U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union during the Cold War era
CULTURAL RELATIVISM the belief that human rights,
ethics, and morality are determined by cultures and history and therefore are not universally applicable
D
DEMOCRATIC
PEACE the classical theory now being empirically tested that democratic states are least likely to wage war against each other
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION the situation where increasing levels of economic development lead to falling death rates,
followed by falling birthrates
DEMOCRATIZATION the process of adopting democratic characteristics. A country is considered
to be democratizing when it adopts one or more of the following features:
(a) government policy is made by officials chosen
through free, fair, and periodic elections in which a substantial proportion of the adult population can vote;
(b) actions
of officials are constrained by constitutional provisions and commitments to civil liberties; and
(c) government candidates
sometimes lose elections and leave office when they do.
Freedom of speech, freedom to organize, to contest elections,
and to present varied viewpoints in the media are preconditions for fair elections.
DEPENDENCY THEORY derived from
radicalism, an explanation of poverty and underdevelopment in developing countries based on their historical dependence and
domination by rich countries
DETERRENCE the policy of maintaining a large military force and arsenal to discourage
any potential aggressor from taking actions; states commit themselves to punish an aggressor state
see also: game theory,
prisoners dilemma
DIPLOMACY the practice of states trying to influence the behavior of other states by bargaining,
negotiating, taking specific non-coercive actions or refraining from such actions, or appealing to the public for support
of a position
see also: public diplomacy
DISARMAMENT the policy of eliminating a states offensive weaponry; may
occur for all classes of weapons or for specified weapons only; the logic of the policy is that fewer weapons leads to greater
security
DOMINO EFFECT a metaphor that posits that the loss of influence over one state to an adversary will lead
to a subsequent loss of control over neighboring states, just as dominos fall one after another. Used by the United States
as a justification to support South Vietnam, fearing that if that country became communist, neighboring countries would also
fall under communist influence
see also: containment, Cold War
E
ETHNIC GROUP a group of people with a distinctive
collective consciousness based on a common language or culture, myths of common ancestry, or a common historical experience.
This type of group is distinct from the term nation.
EUROPEAN UNION (EU) a union of 15 European states, formerly the
European Common Market. Designed originally during the 1950s for economic integration, but since expanded into a closer political
and economic union
EXTERNALITIES in economics, unintended side effects which can have positive or negative consequences
F
FIRST STRIKE a nuclear attack against an enemy that is designed to eliminate the possibility of its being able
to make second strike
FIRST GENERATION HUMAN RIGHTS political or civil rights of citizens that prevent governmental
authority from interfering with private individuals or civil society (negative rights)
G
GAME THEORY a technique
developed by mathematicians and economists and used by political scientists to evaluate the choices made in decision situations,
where one states or individuals choice affects that of other actors; based on the assumption that each player knows its and
the others unique sets of options and the payoffs for each associated with these options. Among the various types of games
is the prisoners dilemma
see also: deterrence
GENERAL WAR war designed to conquer and occupy enemy territory,
using all available weapons of warfare and targeting both military establishments and civilian facilities
see also: civil
war
GENERAL ASSEMBLY one of the major organs of the United Nations which generally addresses issues other than those
of peace and security; each member state has one vote; operates with six functional committees of the whole
see also:
Security Council
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT) founded by treaty in 1947 as the Bretton Woods institution
responsible for negotiating a liberal international trade regime that included the principles of nondiscrimination in trade
and most-favored-nation status. Re-formed itself as the World Trade Organization in 1995
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE the rules,
norms, and organizations that are designed to address international problems that states alone cannot solve
see also:
anarchy
GLOBALIZATION the process of increasing integration of the world in terms of economics, politics, communications,
social relations, and culture
GROUP OF 77 (G-77) a coalition of about 125 developing countries that press for reforms
in economic relations between developing and developed countries; also referred to as the South
GROUPTHINK the tendency
for small groups to form a consensus and resist criticism of a core position, often disregarding contradictory information
in the process; group may ostracize members holding a different position
H
HEGEMON a dominant state that has a
preponderance of power; often establishes and enforces the rules and norms in the international system
HYPOTHESIS
a tentative assumption about causal relations put forward to explore and test its logical and usually empirical consequences
I
IMPERIALISM the policy and practice of extending the domination of one state over another through territorial
conquest or economic domination. In radicalism, the final stage of expansion of the capitalist system
INTER-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS (IGOs) international agencies or bodies established by states and controlled by member states that deal with
areas of common interests
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF) the Bretton Woods institution originally charged with
helping states deal with temporary balance-of-payments problems; now plays a broader role in assisting debtor developing states
by offering loans to those who institute specific policies, or structural adjustment programmes
see also: World Bank
INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS the interactions among various actors (states, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and
sub-national entities like bureaucracies, local governments, and individuals) that participate in international politics
INTERNATIONAL
SOCIETY the states and sub-state actors in the international system and the institutions and norms that regulate their interaction;
implies that these actors communicate, sharing common interests and a common identity; identified with British school of political
theory
see also: anarchy
IRREDENTISM the demands of ethnonationalist groups to take political control of territory
historically or ethnically related to them by separating from their parent state or taking territory from other states
L
LEAGUE OF NATIONS the international organization formed at the conclusion of World War I for the purpose of preventing
another war; based on collective security
LEGITIMACY the moral and legal right to rule, which is based on law, custom,
heredity, or the consent of the governed; with reference to a government, a state recognized by members of the international
community
LEVELS OF ANALYSIS in international relations, the widely accepted notion and analytic approach that each
levelthe individual, the state, and the international systemmatters; specific events can be described and explained according
to each of the three different levels
LIBERALISM the theoretical perspective based on the assumption of the innate
goodness of the individual and the value of political institutions
see also: neoliberal institutionalism
LIMITED
WAR a war fought for limited objectives with selected types of weapons or targets; the objective will be less than the total
subjugation of the enemy
M
MALTHUSIAN DILEMMA the situation that population growth rates will increase faster
than agricultural productivity, leading to shortages; named after Thomas Malthus
MIRROR IMAGE tendency of individuals
and groups to see in ones opponent the opposite characteristics as seen in ones self
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS (MNCs)
private enterprises with production facilities, sales, or activities in several states
N
NATION a group of people
sharing the same race, a common language, history, and/or culture. A nation can be specifically defined as a group of people
who see themselves as distinct in their culture, history, institutions, or collective principles and who aspire to self-rule.
NATION-STATE the entity formed when people sharing the same historical, cultural, or linguistic roots form their own
state with borders, a government, and international recognition; trend began with French and American Revolutions
NATIONAL
INTEREST the interest of the state, most basically the protection of territory and sovereignty; in realist thinking, the interest
is a unitary one defined in terms of the pursuit of power; in liberal thinking, there are many national interests; in radicalist
thinking, it is the interest of a ruling elite
NATIONALISM devotion and allegiance to the nation and the shared characteristics
of its peoples; used to motivate people to patriotic acts, sometimes leading a group to seek dominance over another group.
NEOLIBERAL INSTITUTIONALISM a reinterpretation of liberalism that posits that even in an anarchic international system,
states will cooperate because of their continuous actions with each other and because it is in their self-interest to do so;
institutions provide the framework for cooperative interactions
NEOREALISM a reinterpretation of realism that posits
that the structure of the international system is the most important level to study; states behave the way they do because
of the structure of the international system; includes the belief that general laws can be found to explain events
NEW
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER (NIEO) a list of demands by the Group of 77 to reform economic relations between the North and
South, that is, between the developed countries and the developing countries
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs)
private associations of individuals or groups that engage in political activity usually across national borders
see also:
transnational
NORMATIVE relating to ethical rules; in foreign policy and international affairs, standards suggesting
that a policy should be
NORTH refers to the developed countries, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, including North
America, the European countries, and Japan
see also: South
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) military
and political alliance between western European states and the United States established in 1948 for the purpose of defending
Europe from aggression by the Soviet Union and its allies
see also: Warsaw Pact
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION the spread
of nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons technology; Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty obligates nuclear powers not to transfer
their nuclear technology to third countries and obligates non-nuclear signatories to refrain from acquiring or developing
the technology
O
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS the foreign-policy decision-making model that posits that national decisions
are the products of sub-national governmental organizations and units; the procedures and processes of the organization largely
determine the policy; major changes in policy are unlikely
see also: bureaucratic politics, societal model
OPPORTUNITY
COST when a choice is made, the value of the best forgone opportunity
P
PLURALIST MODEL a model of foreign-policy
decision-making that suggests that policy is formed as a result of the bargaining among the various domestic sources of foreign
policy, including public opinion, private interest groups, and multinational corporations; these interests are generally channeled
through democratic institutions like legislatures or persons holding elective positions
POWER POTENTIAL a relative
measure of the power an entity like a state could have, derived from a consideration of both tangible and intangible resources
that may be used; states may not transfer their power potential into actual power
POWER a relationship between two
individuals, groups, or states in which one party has the ability both to influence the other and to force outcomes that the
other party may not want
PRISONERS DILEMMA a theoretical game in which rational players (states or individuals) choose
options that lead to outcomes (payoffs) in which all players are worse off than under a different set of choices
see also:
deterrence, reciprocity, game theory
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY use of certain diplomatic methods to create a favorable image
of the state or its people; methods include, for example, goodwill tours, cultural and student exchanges, and media presentations
R
RADICALISM a social theory, formulated by Karl Marx and modified by other theorists, that posits that class
conflict between owners and workers will cause the eventual demise of capitalism
RATIONAL ACTOR in the realist assumption,
an individual or state that uses logical reasoning to select a policy; that is, it has a defined goal to achieve, considers
a full range of alternative strategies, and selects the policy that best achieves the goal
REALISM a theory of international
relations that emphasizes states interest in accumulating power to ensure security in an anarchic world; based on the notion
that individuals are power seeking and that states act in pursuit of their own national interest defined in terms of power
RECIPROCITY in international relations, treating the actions of other states in the same manner; if one side cooperates,
the other cooperates; if one side engages in negative actions, the other responds in kind
REGIME in international
relations, an all-encompassing term that includes the rules, norms, and procedures that are developed by states and international
organizations out of their common concerns and are used to organize common activities
S
SANCTIONS economic, diplomatic,
and even coercive military force for enforcing a states policy or legal obligations; sanctions can be positive (offering an
incentive to a state) or negative (punishing a state)
SATISFICE in decision-making theory, the idea that states and
their leaders settle for the minimally acceptable solution, not the best possible outcome, in order to reach a consensus and
formulate a policy
SECOND GENERATION HUMAN RIGHTS social and economic rights that states are obligated to provide
their citizenry, including the rights to medical care, jobs, and housing (positive rights)
SECOND-GENERATION PEACEKEEPING
the use of multilateral forces, both military and civilian, to organize governments, promote law and order, and offer humanitarian
aid and intervention to states or regions experiencing conflict; used extensively in the postCold War era to try to mitigate
the effects of civil and ethnic strife
SECOND-STRIKE CAPABILITY in the age of nuclear weapons, the ability of a state
to respond and hurt an adversary after a first strike has been launched by the adversary; ensures that both sides will suffer
an unacceptable level of damage
SECURITY DILEMMA the situation in which one state improves its military capabilities,
especially its defenses, and those improvements are seen by other states as threats; each state in an anarchic international
system tries to increase its own level of protection leading to insecurity in others, often leading to an arms race
see
also: realism
SECURITY COUNCIL one of the major organs of the United Nations charged with the responsibility for peace
and security issues; includes five permanent members with veto power and ten nonpermanent members chosen from the General
Assembly
SOCIALISM an economic and social system that relies on intensive government intervention or public ownership
of the means of production in order to distribute wealth among the population more equitably; in radicalist theory, the stage
between capitalism and communism
SOUTH the developing countries of Africa, Latin America, and southern Asia, generally
located in the Southern Hemisphere
see also: North, Group of 77 (G-77)
SOVEREIGNTY the authority of the state,
based on recognition by other states and by non-state actors, to govern matters within its own borders that affect its people,
economy, security, and form of government
STATE the organized political unit which has a geographic territory, a stable
population, and a government to which the population owes allegiance and which is legally recognized by other states
STRATIFICATION
the degree to which there is an uneven distribution of resources among different groups of individuals and states
STRUCTURAL
ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME IMF policies and recommendations to guide states out of balance-of-payment difficulties and economic
crises
SUMMIT TALKS AND MEETINGS among the highest-level government officials from different countries; designed to
promote good relations, discuss issues, and conclude formal negotiations
SUPERPOWER highest-power states as distinguished
from other great powers; term coined during the Cold War to refer to the United States and Soviet Union
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT an approach to economic development that tries to reconcile current economic growth and environmental protection
with future needs
SYSTEM a group of units or parts united by some form of regular interaction, in which a change in
one unit causes changes in the others; these interactions occur in regularized ways
T
TERRORISM the use of violence
by groups or states to intimidate, cause fear, or punish their victims to achieve political goals
THEORY generalized
statements about political, social, or economic activity that seek to describe and explain those activities; used in many
cases as a basis of prediction
THIRD GENERATION HUMAN RIGHTS collective rights of groups, including the rights of
indigenous people and children, and the rights to democracy and development
TRACK-TWO DIPLOMACY unofficial overtures
by private individuals or groups to try and resolve an ongoing international crisis or civil war
TRANSNATIONAL across
national boundaries; can refer to actions of various non-state actors, such as private individuals and NGOs
TREATY
OF WESTPHALIA treaty ending the Thirty Years War in Europe in 1648; in international relations represents the beginning of
state sovereignty within a territorial space
U
UNIPOLAR an international system where there is only one great
power
see also: bipolar, multipolar
UNITARY ACTOR an assumption made by realists that the state speaks with one
voice and has a single national interest
UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION a legal concept that permits states to claim legal
authority beyond their national territory for the purpose of punishing a particularly heinous criminal or protecting human
rights
W
WARSAW PACT the military alliance formed by the state of the Soviet bloc in 1955 in response to the rearmament
of West Germany and its inclusion in NATO; permitted the stationing of Soviet troops in Eastern Europe
WORLD TRADE
ORGANIZATION (WTO) organization to support the principles of liberal free trade; includes enforcement measures and dispute
settlement mechanisms; established in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
WORLD BANK
a global lending agency to finance projects in developing countries; formally known as the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development, established as one of the key Bretton Woods institutions to deal with reconstruction and development
see
also: International Monetary Fund (IMF)
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