University of the West Indies, Mona

Department of Government

GT12A Introduction to International Relations

Lecturer: Ms. Diana Thorburn

Lecture 6

Topics: Theories of IR

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should:

Know what a theory is
Understand what is meant by "the international system"
Be able to provide an overview of the three main IR theories and be familiar with some of the principal names associated with IR theories

ONE. HOW TO THINK THEORETICALLY

What is theory?

A theory is a set of propositions and concepts that together aim to explain how and why things happen
Theory's ultimate purpose is to predict events and behaviours by applying the concepts in that theory
A theory generates a hypothesis – a specific statement linking two or more variables in a relationship
Tested and proven hypotheses reinforce the validity of a theory

Theories give us universal rules to help us understand how and why things happen
Theories help us to make sense of the world around us
Another word associated with theory is "paradigm" referring to a set of beliefs or variables that delineate one’s experience
Theory often based on experience—or conversely, experience can informs theory
Theory—particularly in the social sciences, including IR—tends to reflect the viewpoint of the holder of that theory
However good theory should transcend subjective differences in its aim to make universal claims
IR theories aim to explain the way the world works according to a set of universal concepts and propositions
IR theories make propositions about how the international system works by positing relationships between different entities, and suggesting a pattern to the behaviour of those entities

TWO. THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM

A system is comprised of units (or entities) and their interactions
A system is described as such when the interactions between the entities follow a consistent pattern so much so as to establish that pattern as the norm of behaviour in that system
Events, changes, or actions in one part of the system, or on the part of one unit in the system will have an effect on other components of the system
The international system is comprised primarily of nation-states, international organizations (governmental and non-governmental), multinational corporations, and other groups
Their interactions determine the nature of the international system in any given period of time
The international system is interdependent—one entity’s behaviour has a direct or indirect effect on other entities in the system
The contemporary international system is largely dominated by the Westphalian state system
However this is thought to be changing as nation-states interact more and more with non-state actors of various types

THREE. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORIES

The three main IR theories are liberalism, realism and Marxism, though they may go by different names
There are variations on these theories but essentially most IR theories can be traced back to these three
The essential difference between the three is (respectively) their emphasis on morals, interests, or economics

Liberalism/Idealism

Liberal philosophy is rooted in the Enlightenment
Liberal philosophy is the basis of liberalism in international relations

The Enlightenment

A European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries
Ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and man were synthesized into a worldview that brought about revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics (such as the French and the American Revolutions)
Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and the celebration of reason
, the power by which man understands the universe and improves his own condition
Rationality and science triumphed over superstition and religion
The goals of rational man were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness
Out of the Enlightenment came the idea of a government based on democracy, as opposed to the authoritarian state
The central idea of the Enlightenment is that man, given the freedoms of a democratic political and economic system, has the ability to improve his moral and material conditions through education and work

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher who was the foremost thinker of the Enlightenment

Liberalism and international relations

The international political system is comprised of inherently good, rather than selfish actors
International actors can coordinate their actions and cooperate through institutions
Free trade an essential component of a liberal international system
Countries that trade with each other become interdependent
Interdependence implies mutual losses in the case of war
Also trade leads to economic growth, and wealthy countries ought not to go to war

The aim of liberal internationalism is to transform international relations so that they conform to models of peace, freedom and prosperity
Wilsonian ideal as set out in the Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson

Known as the original architect of liberal internationalism—"Wilsonianism" "Wilsonian internationalism"
Based on his grand vision for a peace settlement in Europe at the end of WWI
Fourteen Points
League of Nations
Collective security
Negotiation as a means to prevent future war
Free trade

Basically as exists in Western liberal democracies

Since the end of the Cold War liberalism has returned as the predominant IR theory
Suggestion that the post-Cold War era is one of international liberalism

Bush’s "New World Order" 1991 seen as similar to Wilson’s 1919 ideas

Realism

Views individuals (and international actors) as selfish and power-seeking
The state is the primary actor
Other international actors exist, but they are not important
The state is the unit that pursues its own selfish goals by way of its national interest
National interest here defined in terms of a state’s power in the international system
The international system is inherently anarchic
There is no international authority, and states trust and rely only on themselves
Because they cannot trust each other, states must be prepared to defend themselves against any possible attack
States are rational actors—they act and decide based on what they perceive as empirical data
States are unitary actors—a country’s foreign policy, once it’s decided and enacted, is not debatable
Defines international relations in terms of war – IR being about preventing or winning wars, considering few other issues as important at the international level
Non-powerful states only a part of the international arena when they can be used by the powerful states in their quest for power
Containment and the Truman Doctrine seen as representative of realism
Goal of containment was to prevent Soviet power from expanding by supporting weaker powers and by military buildup
Polarity and balance of power realist concepts
Change in the international system not an option

Thucydides

Greek historian
Wrote History of the Peloponnesian War around 400 B.C.
Encompassed many realist precepts in his work
Mainly the state as a rational, unitary actor whose primary role in the international system is to protect its own self-interest by increasing its military capacity and its wealth, and forming alliances with other states based on similar interests

Niccolo Machiavelli

Italian thinker known for The Prince 1513
Supposedly pragmatic guide on how to attain and maintain ultimate power through ruthlessness and deceit, if necessary
The ultimate aim is power, morality not a consideration

Thomas Hobbes

Pre-Enlightenment thinker who wrote Leviathan 1651

Known for his conceptualization of the "state of nature"
Hobbes portrayed man as moved solely by considerations of his own pleasure and pain
The notion of man as neither good nor bad but interested principally in survival and the maximization of his own pleasure led to radical political theories

He conceptualized man’s basic driving force as to look about his own self-preservation and security
But this would lead to anarchy as everyone goes about looking about their own interests
Peace can then only be achieved if everyone is given a guarantee of the good behaviour of others by creating a power sufficient to keep their selfish behaviour in check

E.H. Carr

Author of one of the most famous books in IR, The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1939
Analysis of the inter-war period and the contrast between ‘realism’ and ‘idealism’
Critiques "utopian" thinking that dominated Western IR thought and practice in the inter-war period
Argues that the precepts of idealism—that international peace was possible if countries agreed to a common set of norms and principles—were based on a set of variables that were not applicable to the post-WWI international environment
Collective security, as embodied in the LoN, was wrongly based on the assumption that the political and territorial status quo was satisfactory to the world super powers
Negotiations based on universal principles of moral conduct were futile in a world where countries sought to protect and expand their interests, with little if any considerations to morality

Marxism

Sees historical analysis as key to understanding contemporary international arena
The history of the production process is at the centre of international relations
International actors interact with each other based on their position in the international division of labour
Rivalry for economic power the driving force behind war and international conflict
State seen as representative of capitalist interests
Thus nation-state behaviour based on it acting as proxy for those interests
Economic interests are considered in both liberalism and realism, but they are not considered the predominant and determining factor in the ways international actors relate

Vladimir Lenin

Established the Communist party in Russia
World’s first Communist dictator
Led the Bolshevik Revolution 1917
Most famous work (related to IR) Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism 1916
Argued that the intensification of industrialisation in Europe in the late 19^th century, and the emergence of large corporations with monopoly power in domestic markets, would inevitably lead to a search for overseas markets
Overseas market expansion would then lead to changes internationally in the modes of production
War was a result of the competition for overseas markets between imperial powers
War would come to an end when communism replaced capitalism around the world

Dependency theory – sees "peripheral" states as trapped in a dependency relationship with "core" states where the peripheral states will always be inferior no matter what

World-system theory – links the different areas of the world to economic processes and relationships going back hundreds perhaps thousands of years

Neo-Realism

An attempt to make realism more scientific
Gives precedence to the structure of the international system
Argues that the structure determines the actors’ behaviour and outcomes
Balance of power also a key principle, but that too is determined by the structure of the system

Neo-liberalism

In international relations, neoliberalism comprises negotiation, cooperation and collective security, but not based on inherent goodness and morality
Cooperation emerges because it is in actors’ self-interest to cooperate
Difference—early liberalism argued that actors cooperated for the good of the world or of others; neoliberalism sees that actors cooperate because ultimately it is in their own best interest
As an economic model neoliberalism comprises free trade, including the dismantling of trade barriers, reduction and privatization of government economic activity, fiscal prudence and a realistic exchange rate
Globalism/Pluralism – contemporary IR theories largely based on the liberal model
Theories strengthened by the increasing power of non-state actors in the post-Cold War international system
Communications technology also seen as making for a more globalist/pluralist international system as territorial borders become less relevant
Contemporary IR issues concerned more with morality than before—the environment, human rights, refugees, gender, religion

Francis Fukuyama

Famous work The End of History and the Last Man 1992
Attempts to interpret what the end of the Cold War means for the world
Argues that the collapse of global communism meant a universal victory for liberalism and capitalism throughout the world
Thus the "end of history" as the end of ideological struggle and the acceptance of a common way of life throughout the world which would eventually lead to a peaceful and homogenous world society
Book attracted a lot of attention as being (Western) culturally imperialistic

CONTENDING THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
	LIBERALISM/ NEOLIBERALISM	REALISM/ NEOREALISM	MARXISM/ DEPENDENCY
KEY ACTORS	States, NGOs, international organizations	International system, nation-states	Social classes, transnational elites, multinational corporations
VIEW OF THE INDIVIDUAL	Basically good; cooperative	Powerseeking; selfish; antagonistic	Actions determined by economic class
VIEW OF THE STATE	Not an autonomonous actor; has many interests; can be influenced by democratic means	Seeks power; unitary and autonomous; pursues national interest	Agent of the structure of international capitalism; executing agent of the bourgeoisie
VIEW OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM	Interdependence among actors; international society; anarchy	Anarchy; stability only in a balance of power system	Highly stratified; dominated by international capitalist system
BELIEFS ABOUT CHANGE	Probable, possible and desirable	Hardly likely; slow if at all; only when balance of power shifts	Only change possible is radical change through revolution; otherwise no chance

Table adapted from Karen Mingst, Essentials of International Relations, New York: Norton, 1999.